ABSTRACT
Inconvenient demographic trends in Europe, particularly low fertility rates, ageing society, and their social consequences are more and more highly debated in political and academic arenas. Beside pronatalist measures, immigration policies are amongst the most likely scenarios that could solve this demographic situation in Europe. However, neither the European public opinion nor the governments of the EU support open immigration. In this line, the authors of the essay interpret the attitudes of respondents towards immigrants in the frame of the international survey The Population Policy Acceptance. The authors assume that the attitudes towards immigrants are underlined also by the individual's assessment of fertility behaviour, partnership, gender roles and children. Namely, the ideologies on national identity through discussions on national reproduction implicitly determine also the outsiders (immigrants, minorities, foreigners, asylum seekers), defining who should be reproduced and to what extent.
The study was carried out in eight countries (Austria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Poland and Slovenia) during the year 2000 and 2003. The review of recent theoretical approaches pertaining to the attitudes towards foreigners leads the authors to formulate some basic hypotheses to test the relations between the attitudes towards immigrants on the one hand, and the attitudes related to fertility, partnership, gender roles and children on the other hand. The analysis shows that the negative assessments of immigrants strongly prevail over the positive assessments. The bivariate correlation analysis further reveals that the negative attitudes towards immigrants increase in conjunction with the rise of support of traditional gender roles, negative evaluation of changes in partnership behaviour (increasing divorces, decline of marriages, childlessness, increasing births out of wedlock), and the meaning of children for parents. Contrary to authors’ initial expectation, the relation between attitudes towards immigrants and fertility behaviour proves one among the most weak in all countries included in the survey. This result is in accord with those researchers who emphasize the paradox of public negative reaction to immigrants in Europe in the time when immigration is considered as one among the most likely solution of unfavourable demographic trends in Europe. The results obtained also call for more systematic studying the representations of national identities or/and national populations and national communities. Through the discussions on national reproduction, “proper” attitudes towards motherhood, family forms, gender roles and finally outsiders are defined.

ABSTRACT
Inconvenient demographic trends in Europe, particularly low fertility rates, ageing society, and their social consequences are more and more highly debated in political and academic arenas. Beside pronatalist measures, immigration policies are amongst the most likely scenarios that could solve this demographic situation in Europe. However, neither the European public opinion nor the governments of the EU support open immigration. In this line, the authors of the essay interpret the attitudes of respondents towards immigrants in the frame of the international survey The Population Policy Acceptance. The authors assume that the attitudes towards immigrants are underlined also by the individual's assessment of fertility behaviour, partnership, gender roles and children. Namely, the ideologies on national identity through discussions on national reproduction implicitly determine also the outsiders (immigrants, minorities, foreigners, asylum seekers), defining who should be reproduced and to what extent.
The study was carried out in eight countries (Austria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Poland and Slovenia) during the year 2000 and 2003. The review of recent theoretical approaches pertaining to the attitudes towards foreigners leads the authors to formulate some basic hypotheses to test the relations between the attitudes towards immigrants on the one hand, and the attitudes related to fertility, partnership, gender roles and children on the other hand. The analysis shows that the negative assessments of immigrants strongly prevail over the positive assessments. The bivariate correlation analysis further reveals that the negative attitudes towards immigrants increase in conjunction with the rise of support of traditional gender roles, negative evaluation of changes in partnership behaviour (increasing divorces, decline of marriages, childlessness, increasing births out of wedlock), and the meaning of children for parents. Contrary to authors’ initial expectation, the relation between attitudes towards immigrants and fertility behaviour proves one among the most weak in all countries included in the survey. This result is in accord with those researchers who emphasize the paradox of public negative reaction to immigrants in Europe in the time when immigration is considered as one among the most likely solution of unfavourable demographic trends in Europe. The results obtained also call for more systematic studying the representations of national identities or/and national populations and national communities. Through the discussions on national reproduction, “proper” attitudes towards motherhood, family forms, gender roles and finally outsiders are defined.

ABSTRACT
Researching of migrations has experienced in the 20th century a bloom; on the foundation of previous researches, several new theories emerged, which tried to explain individual segments of migrations or the entire occurrences. One such theory was responsible for the emergence of the migration systems theory, which was encouraged by a group of researchers gathered in the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population. Within the frame of debating on applicability, advantage and efficiency of the theory, a debate developed about the history of the development of migration theories, as based on new findings, possibilities of faster processing of data and stressing of globalisation, new ways were being sought. The discussion, which actually trailed from 1987, was to the benefit of migration studies because the opinion prevailed that theories in the case of migrations cannot comprise everything and everyone although they take place in a global society. Such research approach was considered as a solution to all the unsolved problems and mysteries of migrations before it was at all clear what the methods were, which data to use, where the borders were, and what at all the results reveal.
The theory, which was in the beginning by the opinions of researchers much promising, soon experienced a run of critiques. However, this is a component part of the process of developing migration theories, on which basis new findings and approaches emerge. Originating from it are new trends in researching international migrations. These speak mainly of social capital, nets and connectedness between migrants.

ABSTRACT
Researching of migrations has experienced in the 20th century a bloom; on the foundation of previous researches, several new theories emerged, which tried to explain individual segments of migrations or the entire occurrences. One such theory was responsible for the emergence of the migration systems theory, which was encouraged by a group of researchers gathered in the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population. Within the frame of debating on applicability, advantage and efficiency of the theory, a debate developed about the history of the development of migration theories, as based on new findings, possibilities of faster processing of data and stressing of globalisation, new ways were being sought. The discussion, which actually trailed from 1987, was to the benefit of migration studies because the opinion prevailed that theories in the case of migrations cannot comprise everything and everyone although they take place in a global society. Such research approach was considered as a solution to all the unsolved problems and mysteries of migrations before it was at all clear what the methods were, which data to use, where the borders were, and what at all the results reveal.
The theory, which was in the beginning by the opinions of researchers much promising, soon experienced a run of critiques. However, this is a component part of the process of developing migration theories, on which basis new findings and approaches emerge. Originating from it are new trends in researching international migrations. These speak mainly of social capital, nets and connectedness between migrants.

ABSTRACT
Presented in the article are the preset results of a field research titled “The position of Slovenes outside the territory of autochthon settlement – the case of Slovenes in Szombathely” with emphasis on the position of Slovenian women, which was carried out in the year 2002.
The objectives of the research were to determine and evaluate above all the grounds for the emigrating of Slovenian from Porabje to town areas in Hungary in different periods, to register difficulties individuals were forced to confront with in majority environments in view of national appurtenance, and to study primarily those socialisation factors (minority organisations, media, family) that (can) contribute to the preserving of ethnic characteristics.
A qualitative analysis of personal interviews with nine Slovenian women from Porabje indicates that the majority of them (mainly members of the younger generation) have moved to Szombathely in the 80s of the 20th century while the rest (above all of the older generation) from the second half of the 40s to the 70s of the 20th century. Among causes, the majority stressed the economic factor, only in few cases motives were political, marriage, transfer of spouse to Szombathely, and similar.
The majority did not have negative experiences because of national appurtenance except one woman of the older generation who did not dare speak with her Slovenian co-worker in the Porabje dialect due to fear of consequences.
Positive changes in the sphere of legal protection of minorities in Hungary contributed at the beginning of the 90s to political and cultural organizing, first in Porabje and in Budapest, and after the adoption of the Law on national and ethnic minorities in Hungary (1993) in other regions in Hungary as well, above all in larger towns (among which belongs Szombathely). The founding and the activity of the Slovenian minority self-management and the Slovenian cultural society Avgust Pavel in Szombathely witness on vitality of this dispersed town community.
The analysis of personal interviews confirms that Slovenian women in Szombathely are in comparison to Slovenian men in Szombathely more active in the process of preservation of ethnic characteristics and in mediating those to the younger generations as well.

ABSTRACT
Presented in the article are the preset results of a field research titled “The position of Slovenes outside the territory of autochthon settlement – the case of Slovenes in Szombathely” with emphasis on the position of Slovenian women, which was carried out in the year 2002.
The objectives of the research were to determine and evaluate above all the grounds for the emigrating of Slovenian from Porabje to town areas in Hungary in different periods, to register difficulties individuals were forced to confront with in majority environments in view of national appurtenance, and to study primarily those socialisation factors (minority organisations, media, family) that (can) contribute to the preserving of ethnic characteristics.
A qualitative analysis of personal interviews with nine Slovenian women from Porabje indicates that the majority of them (mainly members of the younger generation) have moved to Szombathely in the 80s of the 20th century while the rest (above all of the older generation) from the second half of the 40s to the 70s of the 20th century. Among causes, the majority stressed the economic factor, only in few cases motives were political, marriage, transfer of spouse to Szombathely, and similar.
The majority did not have negative experiences because of national appurtenance except one woman of the older generation who did not dare speak with her Slovenian co-worker in the Porabje dialect due to fear of consequences.
Positive changes in the sphere of legal protection of minorities in Hungary contributed at the beginning of the 90s to political and cultural organizing, first in Porabje and in Budapest, and after the adoption of the Law on national and ethnic minorities in Hungary (1993) in other regions in Hungary as well, above all in larger towns (among which belongs Szombathely). The founding and the activity of the Slovenian minority self-management and the Slovenian cultural society Avgust Pavel in Szombathely witness on vitality of this dispersed town community.
The analysis of personal interviews confirms that Slovenian women in Szombathely are in comparison to Slovenian men in Szombathely more active in the process of preservation of ethnic characteristics and in mediating those to the younger generations as well.

ABSTRACT
This article explores destiny of eight Czech women, whose intellectual gifts or personal relations with men put them on the road of public prominence. It was in times, when it was most unusual and dangerous for women, and when their migration and imigration was a sign of the overall difficult political conditions, providing little opportunities for women´s educational, cultural and public activities and ambitions.
Despite significant tragic features related to the lives and struggles of individual discussed women, each of them left for the next generations a unique and valuable legacy of their work and often an example of courageous stands.
The paper is covering basically two periods: pre-constitutional (upto 1867) and the constitutional. In the first period migration was involuntary, blocking literary and intellectual ambitions of women. Only an unrealistic degree of idealism was keeping on the literary writing of the most gifted woman (B. Němcová). Migration provided knowledge about neglected areas of nation´s life, and awarness of their worth. In the second period migration was mostly used to advance old dreams and ambitions.

In both cases women had to struggle with many difficulties and obstacles, and usually they achieved only part of what they hoped and planned. As they became more ambitious, they became stronger and more active, often working at the edge of exhaustion. Experience from different countries allowed for comparisons and a useful degree of cooparation. Courageous young women striving for university education, first in medicine (A. Bayerová, B. Kecková), not available in the Empire, set good example for Czech women, who began to demand relatively early the possibility of the secondary education and the possibility to obtain university education at home. Migration of „Czech“ women from foreign countries to the Czech Kingdom, was beneficial in many respects, although women were hardly aware of it. At least such influences were bringing more initiative into the Czech community, greater trust that work for the benefit of the nation was meaningful, especially in relation to the future (J. Zemanová-Humpal, Ch. G. Masaryková).

These women, building on their experince, were unusually strong, and their strength came from several source, the most important was love for others, faith in positive potentials of human beings, including women, and firm uncompromising character.

ABSTRACT
This article explores destiny of eight Czech women, whose intellectual gifts or personal relations with men put them on the road of public prominence. It was in times, when it was most unusual and dangerous for women, and when their migration and imigration was a sign of the overall difficult political conditions, providing little opportunities for women´s educational, cultural and public activities and ambitions.
Despite significant tragic features related to the lives and struggles of individual discussed women, each of them left for the next generations a unique and valuable legacy of their work and often an example of courageous stands.
The paper is covering basically two periods: pre-constitutional (upto 1867) and the constitutional. In the first period migration was involuntary, blocking literary and intellectual ambitions of women. Only an unrealistic degree of idealism was keeping on the literary writing of the most gifted woman (B. Němcová). Migration provided knowledge about neglected areas of nation´s life, and awarness of their worth. In the second period migration was mostly used to advance old dreams and ambitions.

In both cases women had to struggle with many difficulties and obstacles, and usually they achieved only part of what they hoped and planned. As they became more ambitious, they became stronger and more active, often working at the edge of exhaustion. Experience from different countries allowed for comparisons and a useful degree of cooparation. Courageous young women striving for university education, first in medicine (A. Bayerová, B. Kecková), not available in the Empire, set good example for Czech women, who began to demand relatively early the possibility of the secondary education and the possibility to obtain university education at home. Migration of „Czech“ women from foreign countries to the Czech Kingdom, was beneficial in many respects, although women were hardly aware of it. At least such influences were bringing more initiative into the Czech community, greater trust that work for the benefit of the nation was meaningful, especially in relation to the future (J. Zemanová-Humpal, Ch. G. Masaryková).

These women, building on their experince, were unusually strong, and their strength came from several source, the most important was love for others, faith in positive potentials of human beings, including women, and firm uncompromising character.

ABSTRACT
Towards the end of the 60s and in the beginning of the 70s of the previous century, a large number of the Međimurje population went on temporary work abroad. Due to many reasons among which the impossibility of employing in their native places and the economic underdevelopment of Međimurje should be pointed out, they found jobs in western European countries that were because of deficiency of native labour force compelled to employ foreign capable workers from less developed countries. When acquiring conditions for retirement, some even before reaching retirement, a large number of them return to their native places. By building houses, catering establishments, objects for different purposes, by raising agricultural mechanisation to a higher level, by introducing small trades and handicrafts, by investing in local infrastructure etc., the returnees from temporary work abroad are participating considerably in the physiognomic transformation of the Međimurje settlements. Transformations are at the same time noticeable in many other segments and structures. Transformations that emerged from the influence of social-geographical processes and external migrations reflect in the physiognomy of settlements, in cultural landscape, they are noticed in the transformation, adaptation and principally in equalization of behaviour and dressing of the inhabitants of villages and towns. With the aim to establish the stated, the contribution analyses external migration of the Međimurje population to the countries of Western Europe after World War II and researches how the Međimurje returnees from abroad have physiognomically transformed the Međimurje space. The object of the research is Međimurje that is the Međimurje county, a predominantly agrarian and low-lying region situated between the rivers Drava and Mura at the far northwest of the Republic of Croatia, that is, at the tri-border area of Slovenia, Hungary and Croatia. Under the notion modern migrations, we understand external migrations of the population from the year 1971 to 2001. The time frame is thus determined by the year 1971 when the official statistics registers for the first time external migrations. The basic goal of the research was to investigate and establish the causes for the migrations of the population of Međimurje, and based on field research, statistical data, conducted opinion poll (201 returnees from abroad have been interviewed), interviews, applied literature and sources, carry out results and conclusions by which we want to point out and caution of the consequences of migration of the population of Međimurje. External migrations are being researched into from the departure to the return (the tendency was towards observing all elements of the migration process, that is, from the beginning to the conclusion of the “migration cycle”) to the native place during the period 1971-2001. We have focused on 64 settlements, which are significantly affected by external migrations; hence, field research was carried out in communities and settlements with larger numbers of external migrants.

ABSTRACT
Towards the end of the 60s and in the beginning of the 70s of the previous century, a large number of the Međimurje population went on temporary work abroad. Due to many reasons among which the impossibility of employing in their native places and the economic underdevelopment of Međimurje should be pointed out, they found jobs in western European countries that were because of deficiency of native labour force compelled to employ foreign capable workers from less developed countries. When acquiring conditions for retirement, some even before reaching retirement, a large number of them return to their native places. By building houses, catering establishments, objects for different purposes, by raising agricultural mechanisation to a higher level, by introducing small trades and handicrafts, by investing in local infrastructure etc., the returnees from temporary work abroad are participating considerably in the physiognomic transformation of the Međimurje settlements. Transformations are at the same time noticeable in many other segments and structures. Transformations that emerged from the influence of social-geographical processes and external migrations reflect in the physiognomy of settlements, in cultural landscape, they are noticed in the transformation, adaptation and principally in equalization of behaviour and dressing of the inhabitants of villages and towns. With the aim to establish the stated, the contribution analyses external migration of the Međimurje population to the countries of Western Europe after World War II and researches how the Međimurje returnees from abroad have physiognomically transformed the Međimurje space. The object of the research is Međimurje that is the Međimurje county, a predominantly agrarian and low-lying region situated between the rivers Drava and Mura at the far northwest of the Republic of Croatia, that is, at the tri-border area of Slovenia, Hungary and Croatia. Under the notion modern migrations, we understand external migrations of the population from the year 1971 to 2001. The time frame is thus determined by the year 1971 when the official statistics registers for the first time external migrations. The basic goal of the research was to investigate and establish the causes for the migrations of the population of Međimurje, and based on field research, statistical data, conducted opinion poll (201 returnees from abroad have been interviewed), interviews, applied literature and sources, carry out results and conclusions by which we want to point out and caution of the consequences of migration of the population of Međimurje. External migrations are being researched into from the departure to the return (the tendency was towards observing all elements of the migration process, that is, from the beginning to the conclusion of the “migration cycle”) to the native place during the period 1971-2001. We have focused on 64 settlements, which are significantly affected by external migrations; hence, field research was carried out in communities and settlements with larger numbers of external migrants.